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Spanish American History: Man – His Land – And His Labor

The story of the creation of the Spanish American population has already been told. It is the story of the men who came to America, the Spaniards; of the people they found there, the Indians; of the men they brought in chains, and of the mixtures of blood among them. Thus was created in Spanish America a mixed people with Asiatic, African and European roots.

Spanish America from the beginning developed a rigidly stratified class society, as inflexible as that of Spain itself but with new variations. The arrangement of the several classes became clear within a few years after the Conquest. At the top stood the Spaniards born in Spain, the peninsulares, or “men of the peninsula,” derisively known in Mexico as the gachupines, “the men with the spurs,” and in South America as chapetones, “tenderfeet.” Throughout the colonial period the peninsulares maintained the top position in society, held the chief offices, and received the best salaries from state and Church.

The second class comprised the creoles, those of pure Spanish blood born in America. They were holders of less important offices, landholders, business and professional men, and artisans. The creoles, no matter how proud their lineage, were relegated to a social position far below that of the peninsulares. These two top classes, increasingly antagonistic, included the dominant and wealthy families of Spanish America.

The third social class was that of the mestizo, issue of the mingling of Spaniard and Indian, heir of Castile and Andalusia. These were chiefly the progeny of unblessed unions, who bore the stigma of their illicit birth, were fully recognized by neither the Indian nor white worlds, and were torn between their rival loyalties. The mestizo was denied his birthright to ownership of land in either world, learned to fend for himself, and laid the foundation for a middle class of small traders, schemers, and promoters.

The fourth class comprised the two groups of Indians, those tamed and nominally Christianized, living under the shadow of the white man’s world, and the wild Indians of the frontier. It was an infinitely complex ethnic pattern, the principal groups already described splitting into numerous variations. But the very multiplicity and variety of social groups played into Spanish hands. The effectiveness of the policy of “divide and rule” has never been more successful.

This social organization was not altogether inflexible. There were many creole families who, because of honored ancestry or economic power, outranked most peninsulares. There were, in the course of time, families with marked admixture of Indian blood who, because of their accumulated wealth, achieved a place with honored creoles. Racial lines steadily yielded to economic realities, and society was willing tacitly to overlook Indian ancestry where a family had won distinction and wealth.

Of such varieties were the men of America. Each had his own idea of what he wanted out of this new world. The Spaniard came to gain fortune. The Spaniard came to win not only gold but also land, for land meant power, prestige, and a new home. The Indian, offered little choice, desired only to be permitted to enjoy the land which was his father’s before him, to tend his cornfields, and to serve his ancient gods. The mestizo, his loyalties divided between the world of his Indian mother and that of his Spanish father, struggled for whatever advantage he could get from either, and often ended as an outcast from both of those worlds.

The Spaniard, dominant in the unequal partnership, finally got what he wanted. He wanted land, much land, as much as he could get. He wanted it for the crops it would yield and for the social distinction it conferred upon its holder. And closely allied to desire for land was demand for Indian labor to till it. The Spaniards were too few in number to plant and harvest the crops even had they wished to. But the will to labor was not in them, for the great majority of the migrating Spaniards regarded themselves as gentlemen (no matter how humble their rank may have been in Spain), and Spanish gentlemen did not dirty their hands. There were, of course, many in Spain who dug, sowed, fertilized, and harvested with their own hands, but the grandees of Spain saw to it that such hardy fellows stayed at home to look after their masters’ fields. So it was inevitable that Spaniards transplanted to American soil demanded land and Indians. The one was useless without the other. The first conquerors expected both as their rightful due. Those who came later continued to clamor for the same generous treatment.

Thus debate was inevitable, always wordy and often bloody, between the partisans of two opposing views. On the one hand were the planters and mine operators, who swore that the land and the treasure which lay under it belonged to the Spaniards by right of conquest and that the Indians were bound to serve their conquerors. On the other hand were the enlightened friars, some civil authorities, and the kings, who argued that the landrights of the Indian should be respected and that the Indian himself deserved treatment as a man and could not be enslaved.

Theologians enlivened the discussion by arguing whether the Indian was indeed a man, whether he had a soul. During the first decade after Columbus landed on Hispaniola there was no clear royal policy on these fine points. The first colonists reduced the Indians to slavery. Generous Queen Isabella, who accepted responsibility for the souls of her primitive subjects, sent Ovando as governor to Hispaniola in 1502, with strict orders against despoiling and enslaving the Indians. Ovando faithfully obeyed Isabella’s instructions, whereupon the Indians fled to the mountains, dug no gold, cultivated no corn, did not answer when the church bells summoned them for religious instruction. Such idleness and disdain for the gospel provoked Isabella to action. In 1503 she ordered the introduction of the encomienda as the royal solution for regulating land and labor in America.

The encomienda (from encomendar, to entrust), a word for which there is no adequate English equivalent, was the legal device under which the Crown “entrusted” specified numbers of Indians to deserving Spaniards, the encomenderos, who thereby won definite rights over their Indians and incurred equally specific obligations to them. The encomendero was entitled to certain definite days of labor from his charges and was duty bound faithfully to serve their physical and spiritual wellbeing. The plan, based upon earlier Spanish experience with conquered Moslems, was devised to serve both practical and ideal ends. It rewarded devoted soldiers by assuring them of fruitful fields and productive mines. It also fulfilled the Crown’s pledge to the pope, guaranteeing the conversion of the savages to the Christian faith and their protection against rapacious conquerors. It was specifically designed as a cure for the brutal repartimiento (from repartir, to divide up), by which the first settlers had seized Indians at random and put them to work in the mines or shipped them to distant points as slaves.

The royal intention in establishing the encomienda was merciful, and royal intentions continued to be good under the kings of the sixteenth century. Unfortunately for the Indians thus “entrusted,” the encomiendas were managed not by kings but by planters and mine operators who thought much of the wheat, corn, gold, and silver the earth produced, little of the health and happiness of the Indians who garnered that wealth, and even less of the salvation of the hypothetical souls of their charges. It was therefore inevitable that the encomienda, despite its safeguards, brought seizure of Indian lands theoretically not included by the encomienda and the reduction of the Indians themselves to a state of slavery. The granting of encomiendas, begun in 1503, continued and spread from Mexico to Chile. Cortes was given some 100,000 Indians in a domain of about 25,000 square miles. Pizarro fared equally well. Lesser captains received princely allotments. Even foot soldiers and cavalrymen were remembered, each receiving Indians and, in effect, the lands they occupied.

The abuses of the encomienda, glaring from its inception, aroused the stormy protest of many churchmen. The kings joined in the effort to save the Indian. In 1512 the Crown issued the Laws of Burgos, confirming the encomienda but laying down new ordinances for the protection of the Indian. In 1520 Charles 1 ordered an end to the encomienda but soon rescinded his action in the face of protests from overseas. In 1526 he issued new regulations designed to safeguard the Indians “from the rapacity and cruelty of the Spaniards.” Pope Paul 111 ruled in 1537 that the Indians were “truly men,” possessed of immortal souls, fit for conversion, and under no circumstances to be enslaved.

The New Laws “for the governing of the Indies… and the protection of the Indians” were promulgated by Charles 1st in 1542. The Indians were declared free vassals of the Crown, never to be slaves. The encomienda was to be outlawed, no new encomiendas were to be granted, and those existing were to lapse upon the death of their holders. The New Laws incited revolts in Mexico and Peru, and within three years they were revoked. The life of the encomienda, chief instrument for holding the Indian in virtual slavery, was extended and inheritance was permitted from generation to generation; it was not finally outlawed until the last days of the eighteenth century. By that time most of the best land was concentrated in the hands of the great plantation owners (hacendados) and of the Church. And the Indians, save for those in more remote villages, were chiefly peons with scant rights as free men.

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Stress Reduction = Acoustical Home Improvement Products to the Rescue for Every Home

Urban and even suburban environments have increasingly higher decibel levels. It is a well-known fact that noise adds stress to our bodies. Our senses continually process input consciously or unconsciously. For many people body downtime is hard to come by.

Ever sat in a restaurant and you could hear everyone around you but the person across the table from you with whom you came to enjoy a meal? This is a classic problem of insufficient noise control. The good news: it can be remedied. I often wonder why restaurant designers miss this part of restaurant design. It is such an important element in the enjoyment of a place & does effect whether customers return to a place.

Are there home improvement products that dampen sound in our homes, apartments, offices and public spaces? Are there materials that can return our homes to more peaceful sanctuaries? The answer is “YES”.

Not surprisingly, there are more and more products coming onto the market that promise sound reduction. We examine them here so that you can choose the right home improvement products in your upcoming home remodels.

Essentially, acoustical home improvement products fall into two product categories: One of those that block sound from the outside and two, products which provide sound absorption.

Sheetrock: Soundproofing drywall has been around for a number of years. The level of sound dampening depends on the thickness of the drywall and also the laying given to drywall. Each drywall 4×8 sheet consist of a system of layers. Specifically, a viscoelastic polymer layer is sandwiched by traditional gypsum. Continuing this system with manufacturers commonly also sell acoustical glues to provide even more noise control.

One tip: it is best to refrain from specialty wall finishes such as faux plaster finishes. Plaster is a hard surface that deflects noise instead of allowing sound waves to get to the viscoelectric membrane where they can be absorbed or neutralized.

Windows: Windows are in the first sound deflection group of home improvement products. In the past, so-called triple pane glass would dampen noise from the outside. It used to be pretty much the only solution. For a number of years special acoustical windows featured a diagonally or angled layer of glass between two outer glass surfaces. Recently, advances in new materials have created new – and I might add – exciting options. Pleotint, Inc. offers a window film that catches the proverbial two birds in one stroke. The Pleotint sunlight responsive thermochromic film (SRT) reflects sunlight to avoid solar heat build up inside a house or office AND it keeps outside noise out. It keeps outside noise out! It is state-of-the art technology- in fact so new that window manufacturers are evaluating the product presently. Homeowners: demand it with your upcoming window purchases!

Wood Flooring: Wood is an acoustically “hard” surface. Different manufacturers produce a variety of rubber and foam underlayment products. They work! Everyone who installs a new floor should include these underlayments. Especially when kitchen and living spaces are open to each other acoustical underlayment will dampen down the clanking kitchen noise that might otherwise interfere with someone’s reading or watching TV.

Tile Flooring: Everyone would concur that tile has no noise absorption. Great noise improvement can again be achieved with underlayments. There is acoustical foam underlayment. However it should not be used in combination with electric radiant heat installations.

Insulation: If you have ever built a house or added a new structure you know how sounds is muffled the moment insulation is installed. All insulation products have this effect. It is important to avoid compression of insulation to achieve maximum noise control. There are specialty-type acoustical insulations – every effective.

Wall Underlayments: Accoustical liners are another superb way of reducing noise. They work by absorbing sound waves. Manufacturers’ specifications typically carefully list what sound wave spectrum gets best absorbed by which specific product. Once insulation is installed the layer of wall underlayment gets tacked over the entire surface prior to the hanging of gypsum wall / sheetrock.

Wall /Ceiling Treatments: Much like wallpaper, walls can be lined with special noise absorbing fabrics and fabric panels. This is best left as a professional installation. It can be an attractive looking solution and might be a good solution when the opening of walls is not an option.

Home Décor: Curtains can be lined with a certain type of fabric commonly known as “bumper fabric”. It adds quite a bit of weight to the curtain but the noise absorption is terrific especially since curtains are naturally waving structure, which breaks up sound refractions. The right materials make even an audiophile happy who set out with the impossible: convert a large living room space with high ceilings, hard plaster walls and hardwood floors into a listening room.

One final note: Constant and thus often aggravating noise in a home environment can come from unskillfully installed equipment – otherwise known as rattles. In this case vibration mounts are usually the answer. A case in point might be the airhandler in your attic. Unless it is suspended from rafters or sits on airhandler vibration mounts air-handler unit is likely to rattle day and night…talk about stress.

by admin

Carpet Cleaning – Tips and Tricks To Keep Your Carpet Looking New

No matter how clean you keep your home, carpets reflect the real level of activity in your home. From spots and stains to full on high traffic ground in dirt, carpets tell all your secrets. Luckily there are lots of little things you can do to keep your carpet looking good for as long as possible. Here we’ll review the Top 10 common, and not so common, tips for keeping your carpet looking new.

10. Move Your Furniture!
Anyone who has had a carpet for a long time knows that if your furniture stays put you end up with a patchwork appearance once you move a large piece of furniture from one place to another. One easy easy to avoid this problem and give your room a new feel is to simply rearrange your furniture. This allows your carpeting to get used uniformly and also allows you to give it a good cleaning in the process. Vacuum as you go and deal with indentations left by heavy pieces by placing you iron on its steam setting and hold it closely enough to your carpet for the steam to hit it. Do not place your iron directly on your carpet as this could melt the fibers. Once the steam has fluffed up the fibers which have been depressed, grab a spoon or a coin and fluff them up more by using a gentle scraping action. Make sure to blot the area dry.

9. Tackle Stains and Spills Right Away.
Stains can be no big deal if you get to them right away. In fact, most stains that become a permanent fixture of your carpet do so as a result of being left to sit and really sink in. Vinegar is a simple household item usually found under the sink which can take care of almost anything. From ink to wine, vinegar is able to handle the job. Simply dilute it with some water and keep it in a spray bottle so that you have a handy first stop when it comes to stains.

8. Vacuum Often and Do It Right Once A Week
Vacuuming is typically a part of every home’s weekly cleaning schedule. If you have pets or children then chances are you vacuum even more often. Though you may perform daily vacuuming it is important to really do it fully once a week. This means moving any furniture or other heavy items in order to clean around, behind and beneath them. Mentally divide your carpet into smaller more manageable areas and move the vacuum slowly over each section before moving on to the next.

7. Repair What You Can.
Some carpet repairs can be easy to clean if you keep a small stash of extra carpeting pieces around. These pieces are usually offcuts from when it was installed and, failing that, you can get a small 1 foot square from a local business for a small fee. Having this on hand can be useful in repairing small things like burns or other damage with affects the fibers. Carpet fibers are usually made from synthetic materials and, as a result, they can melt when exposed to heat. This can happen due to knocked over candles, cigarettes and even embers from your fireplace. If a small area has been burned, carefully snip away the melted fibers and put a small amount of glue down. The either replace with a piece of carpeting from your leftover scraps or cut the fibers off the good scrap and “replant” them into the hole left in your carpeting.

6. Learn How to Deal with The Worst Stains
Out of all the stains a carpet can get wax is certainly one of the most intimidating. Immediately cool the wax with an ice cube and scrape up as much as you can with a spoon. Use caution during this process and don’t press too hard when scraping as this can drive the wax particles further into your carpet. Use an iron on a lower setting and put a piece of brown paper between it and your carpet. Use the steam from your iron to pull the wax into the paper. Cool the area and scrape again and that should be it!
Wax

5. Take Your Shoes Off
Perhaps you haven’t hear this rule since the time you visited an aunt or grandma but it’s a great habit to develop. Shoes are dirty, we all know that, and keeping them off your carpet will prevent a lot of ground in dirt and debris from ever touching your carpeting. Keep a shoe box or tree near the door along with a welcome mat that can absorb any wet debris. In the winter include a chair or stool right by the door so people can sit down to remove boots.

4. Install Runners
High traffic areas show wear and dirt more quickly than other parts of your run. Stop at a local store or even charity shop and pick up a few runner rugs. These long narrow rugs come in every imaginable style and can be easily washed once they begin to get dirty.

3. Use Gentle Cleaning Products
When addressing stains or marks on your carpet don’t go for the harsh removers first. Try gentler products to see if they can handle the job first. Harsh commercial cleansers can break down your carpet fibers while removing the stain. Vinegar water and even laundry detergent diluted with water and used in a spray bottle can handle most organic stains.

2. Keep It Dry.
When you do need to clean your carpet or you just have a spill be sure to dry your carpet thoroughly. Moisture trapped in a carpet can encourage mold and bacteria growth which can spread to your flooring as well as aggravate allergic or asthmatic reactions in household members and guests.

No matter how clean you keep your home, carpets reflect the real level of activity in your home. From spots and stains to full on h